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Showing posts with label HR Article. Show all posts
Showing posts with label HR Article. Show all posts

Wednesday, November 4, 2009

How to Reverse Negative Staff Attitudes

Employees and Companies Can Develop a Negative “Aura”


Staff and management do not establish goals to infuse a negative culture into their department or company. The predominance of negativity is typically insidious because it happens over time. Much like the culture of “losing” that afflicts athletic teams, including the feeling that the players know the outcome before the game begins, some corporate teams, departments, and companies unknowingly adopt this attitude.

At other times, the reasons are not only obvious but understandable. Corporate downsizing, with many employees separated from the company, often create negative attitudes among the majority of remaining staff members. Unlike layoffs, which imply (at least) that the company will re-employ the separated employees, downsizing contains no such unwritten promise.

Unfortunately, downsizing indicates the former employees will not be rehired, which removes the always important human value of “hope.” When hope is removed from the personal or professional equation, a form of “workplace depression” often emerges. These negative attitudes can become damaging to performance, teamwork, and goal achievement.

The key for management is to identify negative staff attitudes and, once discovered, take immediate action to reverse these destructive issues and behaviours. Here are some suggestions for managers to consider.

Reversing Negative Staff Attitudes
Unfortunately, the reversal of negative staff attitudes cannot be compartmentalised into a simple, neat, and technical answer. Humans tend to be complex organisms. There is little consistency in their behaviour and attitudes. Further complicating this issue is the reason for the negative staff attitudes or behaviours. Understandably, management may not care about the motivation. Yet, they must take action to reverse the condition.

Some combination of the following actions often cures the problem.

  • Be upfront and acknowledge the negativity problem. At first, this may seem like a useless or, at best, ineffective activity. However, remember two things: The staff is well aware of the negativity of one or more team members. Second, management attempts at being “subtle” often indicate to employees that they (management) are either unaware of the problem or choose to ignore it. Acknowledging the negativity problem is a critical component to its resolution.
  • Display positive behaviour at all times. Much like political candidates and stage actors, management, regardless of their true feelings (they may also be a bit negative because of downsizing and uncertainty), must publicly display total positivity. Employees should witness the positive alternative to their negativity.
  • Publicly identify any and all positive issues. Unless the company has already scheduled a meeting with legal counsel to prepare Chapter 11 bankruptcy paperwork, the business has many positive features. These factors tend to be overlooked during conditions that generate negativity. Management should be diligent - and very vocal - with staff to identify every positive aspect of the company and its products or services.
  • Recognise every positive contribution by staff members. Always a successful procedure, public recognition of individual employee performance and contribution can be as “contagious” as its opposite – negativity. When management faces a negative-oriented staff, the importance and rewards of public recognition of superior performance take on majestic proportions.
  • Encourage individuals and teams to contribute to decision-making. The popular term is “empowerment” but that is more appropriate to textbooks. When management gives its staff the ability to contribute ideas and suggestions to marketing, operations, or financial policies, employees typically respond with great positivity.

As long as there is a world of business, management will encounter individual negative employees. When economic conditions, business reversals, or workplace problems exist, negativity can spread to groups of employees or entire staffs. Management must have a plan and respond quickly before this negativity affects staff performance in the long term. No company can sustain staff negativity for long periods.

Using some or all of the above suggestions, tailored to the specific problems of your company, could give you and other managers the effective tools to reverse negative staff attitudes and the damage that inevitably ensues. Managers who adopt these techniques often find that superiors appreciate their efforts and results.

HR Outsourcing?

What is HR Outsourcing?

Any activity, in which a company lacks internal expertise and confidentiality and requires an unbiased opinion on human resources, can be outsourced. An important reason why various businesses turn to outsource HR services is that they do not have the time or expertise to deal with the situation or we can say that Outsourcing of HR Activities which are more of day-to-day or month-to-month requirements

What can be outsourced?

  • Alcohol and Drug Test
  • Employee Background Checking
  • Employees Benefits Administration
  • Employment Screening
  • Payroll Administration
  • Regulatory Compliance
  • Salary Surveys
  • Time & Attendance Tracking
  • Employee Liability Management
  • Hiring and Recruiting
  • Employee Training
  • Performance Management
  • Database Management

Why HR Outsourcing?


HR Outsourcing helps in

  • Cost-savings: Costs are reduced primarily for companies that are extremely large and inefficient. But the savings are there, freeing up capital for other ventures.
  • Improve the quality of service with high speed of accuracy
  • Standardization of HR Process and Systems
  • HR professionals can be more strategic: rather than being forced to enter data, crunch numbers, and push paper, HR professionals can focus their efforts on improving company-wide systems and procedures. HR professionals can maximize their expertise when they are relieved of administrative tasks.
  • Better technology: HR Outsourcing providers keep up with technology, plain and simple. It’s their job to do so. Companies can avoid the expense of upgrading their own technology by outsourcing human resources
  • The CEOs, Line Managers expects HR Department to play role of a strategic partner for business growth. The core aspect of HR function related to strategic partner for business growth. The core aspects of HR Functions begins with attracting and retaining talent, building people capability in the organisation, developing a leadership pipeline and creating a learning organisation

Disadvantages of HR Outsourcing

  • Loss of managerial control, because it is more difficult to manage outside service providers than managing one’s own employees working possibly in the same building.
  • Often the hidden costs are difficult to calculate or prepare for. These include legal costs related to putting together a contract between two companies and the time spent to coordinating the contract.
  • The fear of losing jobs
  • Threat to security and confidentiality. If your company is outsourcing processes like payroll
  • Outsourcing stigma Again, there is already a stigma surrounding outsourcing. Opponents of this business practice cry foul because jobs are being sent overseas to employees with considerably fewer skills and less expertise.

Whether to go for HR Outsourcing or not?

360 Degree Appraisal system

What is 360 degree appraisal system?

It is a process which receives confidential, anonymous feedback about the person from his manager, peers, and direct reports. Eight to Ten Employees who are associated with the employee fill feedback form that asks questions to measure the workplace competencies on a rating scale. The person receiving feedback also fills out a self-rating survey that includes the same survey questions that others receive in their forms.

Individual responses are always combined with responses from other people in the same rater category (e.g. peer, direct report) in order to preserve anonymity and to give the employee a clear picture of his/her greatest overall strengths and weaknesses.

360 degree Appraisal system for non-managers is useful to help people be more effective in their current roles, and also to help them understand what areas they should focus on if they want to move into a management role.

The relationship of 360 Degree Appraisal System with other Human Resource Systems is positive in terms of its utility. It is used for training, team building, career development, succession planning, performance assessment and for monitoring the effects of change training programmes.

360 degree Appraisal system makes better performance of the organization because

  • Enhances performance quality
  • Provides specific performance feedback
  • Targets developmental areas
  • Provides strong motivation
  • Facilitates performance improvement
  • Allows measurement of training effectiveness
  • Enhances self-knowledge
  • Supports continuous learning
  • Improves the reliability and validity of performance information.

There are few inherent difficulties are not unique and common with any appraisal & feedback systems like

  • Managers may focus on pleasing subordinates in an effort to get higher appraisal
  • The authority of manager could be undermined by the pressure of upward appraisals and the implications of low evaluations for a manager’s status within the organization.
  • 360 degree Appraisal System is not focused on basic technical or job-specific skills
  • 360 degree appraisal system should not be used to measure strictly objective things such as attendance, sales quotas, etc.
  • Managers may also be confused about how to interpret subordinate appraisal relative to ratings from other sources, such as their bosses

In order to reap maximum benefits from the system, the system should have

Senior-Level Support – Senior Managers should participate in the 360 degree feedbackappraisal process and actively pursue their own developmental plans.

Communicating the purpose of the system to all the employees

Proper Planning for the implementation of 360 degree appraisal system

Delivery of Feedback - If feedback is not provided in an appropriate manner, your program could backfire. We recommend using professional, neutral coaches to deliver feedback.

Developmental Plan - Every person who receives feedback needs to create some developmental goals based on the feedback he or she received - and remember - those goals need to be both measurable and achievable.

Accountability - Developmental goals are meaningless unless people are held accountable for achieving them. Make sure your employees and their managers understand how to create S.M.A.R.T. goals - Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and Timely.

Follow-Up - Plan to solicit additional feedback six to twelve months after the initial data are collected.

Conclusion:

360 degree appraisal system as discussed above has its advantages and disadvantages. However, this has lesser limitations as a performance Management system in comparison to the traditional top-down performance methods. In order to reap the full benefits, organizations need to nurture a value system wherein openness, trust and objectivity are given more emphasis.

Saturday, October 17, 2009

Basics of Conflict Management


Clarifying Confusion About Conflict

Conflict is when two or more values, perspectives and opinions are contradictory in nature and haven't been aligned or agreed about yet, including:
1. Within yourself when you're not living according to your values;
2. When your values and perspectives are threatened; or
3. Discomfort from fear of the unknown or from lack of fulfillment.
Conflict is inevitable and often good, for example, good teams always go through a "form, storm, norm and perform" period. Getting the most out of diversity means often-contradictory values, perspectives and opinions.

Conflict is often needed. It:
1. Helps to raise and address problems.
2. Energizes work to be on the most appropriate issues.
3. Helps people "be real", for example, it motivates them to participate.
4. Helps people learn how to recognize and benefit from their differences.
Conflict is not the same as discomfort. The conflict isn't the problem - it is when conflict is poorly managed that is the problem.

Conflict is a problem when it:
1. Hampers productivity.
2. Lowers morale.
3. Causes more and continued conflicts.
4. Causes inappropriate behaviors.

Types of Managerial Actions that Cause Workplace Conflicts

1. Poor communications
a. Employees experience continuing surprises, they aren't informed of new
decisions, programs, etc.
b. Employees don't understand reasons for decisions, they aren't involved in
decision-making.
c. As a result, employees trust the "rumor mill" more than management.

2. The alignment or the amount of resources is insufficient. There is:
a. Disagreement about "who does what".
b. Stress from working with inadequate resources.

3. "Personal chemistry", including conflicting values or actions among managers and employees, for example:
a. Strong personal natures don't match.
b. We often don't like in others what we don't like in ourselves.

4. Leadership problems, including inconsistent, missing, too-strong or uninformed leadership (at any level in the organization), evidenced by:
a. Avoiding conflict, "passing the buck" with little follow-through on decisions.
b. Employees see the same continued issues in the workplace.
c. Supervisors don't understand the jobs of their subordinates.

Key Managerial Actions / Structures to Minimize Conflicts

1. Regularly review job descriptions. Get your employee's input to them. Write down and date job descriptions. Ensure:
a. Job roles don't conflict.
b. No tasks "fall in a crack".

2. Intentionally build relationships with all subordinates.
a. Meet at least once a month alone with them in office.
b. Ask about accomplishments, challenges and issues.

3. Get regular, written status reports and include:
a. Accomplishments.
b. Currents issues and needs from management.
c. Plans for the upcoming period.

4. Conduct basic training about:
a. Interpersonal communications.
b. Conflict management.
c. Delegation.

5. Develop procedures for routine tasks and include the employees' input.
a. Have employees write procedures when possible and appropriate.
b. Get employees' review of the procedures.
c. Distribute the procedures.
d. Train employees about the procedures.

6. Regularly hold management meetings, for example, every month, to communicate new initiatives and status of current programs.

7. Consider an anonymous suggestion box in which employees can provide suggestions.

Ways People Deal With Conflict

There is no one best way to deal with conflict. It depends on the current situation. Here are the major ways that people use to deal with conflict.
1. Avoid it. Pretend it is not there or ignore it.
a. Use it when it simply is not worth the effort to argue. Usually this approach tends
to worsen the conflict over time.

2. Accommodate it. Give in to others, sometimes to the extent that you compromise yourself.
a. Use this approach very sparingly and infrequently, for example, in situations
when you know that you will have another more useful approach in the very
near future. Usually this approach tends to worsen the conflict over time, and
causes conflicts within yourself.

3. Competing. Work to get your way, rather than clarifying and addressing the issue. Competitors love accommodators.
a. Use when you have a very strong conviction about your position.

4. Compromising. Mutual give-and-take.
a. Use when the goal is to get past the issue and move on.

5. Collaborating. Focus on working together.
a. Use when the goal is to meet as many current needs as possible by using mutual
resources. This approach sometimes raises new mutual needs.
b. Use when the goal is to cultivate ownership and commitment.

To Manage a Conflict Within Yourself - "Core Process"

It's often in the trying that we find solace, not in getting the best solution. The following steps will help you in this regard.
1. Name the conflict, or identify the issue, including what you want that you aren't getting. Consider:
a. Writing your thoughts down to come to a conclusion.
b. Talk to someone, including asking them to help you summarize the conflict in 5
sentences or less.

2. Get perspective by discussing the issue with your friend or by putting it down in writing. Consider:
a. How important is this issue?
b. Does the issue seem worse because you're tired, angry at something else, etc.?
c. What's your role in this issue?

3. Pick at least one thing you can do about the conflict.
a. Identify at least three courses of action.
b. For each course, write at least three pros and cons.
c. Select an action - if there is no clear course of action, pick the alternative that
will not hurt, or be least hurtful, to yourself and others.
d. Briefly discuss that course of action with a friend.

4. Then do something.
a. Wait at least a day before you do anything about the conflict. This gives you
a cooling off period.
b. Then take an action.
c. Have in your own mind, a date when you will act again if you see no clear
improvement.

To Manage a Conflict With Another - "Core Process"

1. Know what you don't like about yourself, early on in your career. We often don't like in others what we don't want to see in ourselves.
a. Write down 5 traits that really bug you when see them in others.
b. Be aware that these traits are your "hot buttons".

2. Manage yourself. If you and/or the other person are getting heated up, then manage yourself to stay calm by
a. Speaking to the person as if the other person is not heated up - this can be very
effective!
b. Avoid use of the word "you" - this avoids blaming.
c. Nod your head to assure them you heard them.
d. Maintain eye contact with them.

3. Move the discussion to a private area, if possible.

4. Give the other person time to vent.
a. Don't interrupt them or judge what they are saying.

5. Verify that you're accurately hearing each other. When they are done speaking:}
a. Ask the other person to let you rephrase (uninterrupted) what you are hearing from
them to ensure you are hearing them.
b. To understand them more, ask open-ended questions. Avoid "why" questions -
those questions often make people feel defensive.

6. Repeat the above step, this time for them to verify that they are hearing you. When you present your position
a. Use "I", not "you".
b. Talk in terms of the present as much as possible.
c. Mention your feelings.

7. Acknowledge where you disagree and where you agree.

8. Work the issue, not the person. When they are convinced that you understand them:
a. Ask "What can we do fix the problem?" They will likely begin to complain again.
Then ask the same question. Focus on actions they can do, too.

9. If possible, identify at least one action that can be done by one or both of you.
a. Ask the other person if they will support the action.
b. If they will not, then ask for a "cooling off period".

10. Thank the person for working with you.

11. If the situation remains a conflict, then:
a. Conclude if the other person's behavior conflicts with policies and procedures in
the workplace and if so, present the issue to your supervisor.
b. Consider whether to agree to disagree.
c. Consider seeking a third party to mediate.

Monday, August 3, 2009

Values, Attitudes, and Their Effects in the Workplace

Values, Attitudes, and Their Effects in the Workplace
  • What are values?

  • How can we understand values across cultures?

  • Are there unique Canadian values?

  • Why are differences in values important?

  • What are attitudes and how are they formed?

  • What is job satisfaction?

Values

• Values
– Basic convictions about what is important to the individual
– They contain a judgmental element of what is right, good, or desirable.

Values
Types of values
• Terminal: Goals that individuals would like to achieve during their lifetime
• Instrumental: Preferable ways of behaving
– Importance of values
• Values generally influence attitudes and behaviour.

Values vs. Ethics

Ethics
– The science of morals in human conduct
– Moral principles; rules of conduct

• Ethical Values are related to moral judgments about right and wrong

A Framework for Assessing Cultural Values

Hofstede’s Dimensions
– Power Distance
– Individualism Versus Collectivism
– Quantity of Life Versus Quality of Life
– Uncertainty Avoidance
– Long-term versus Short-term Orientation

Exhibit 3-2 Examples of National Cultural ValuesCanadian Social Values

The Elders
– Those over 50
– Core Values: Belief in order, authority, discipline, and the Golden Rule
The Boomers
– Born mid-1940s to mid-1960s
– Autonomous rebels, anxious communitarians, connected enthusiasts, disengaged Darwinists

Canadian Social Values

• Generation X
– Born mid-1960s to early 1980s
– Thrill-seeking materialists, aimless dependents, social hedonists, new Aquarians, autonomous post-materialists
The Ne(x)t Generation
– Born between 1977 and 1997
– “Creators, not recipients”
– Curious, contrarian, flexible, collaborative, high in self-esteem

Francophone and Anglophone Values
Francophone Values

– More collectivist or group-oriented
– Greater need for achievement
– Concerned with interpersonal aspects of workplace
– Value affiliation
• Anglophone Values

– Individualist or I-centred
– More task-centred
– Take more risks
– Value autonomy

Canadian Aboriginal Values

– More collectivist in orientation
– More likely to reflect and advance the goals of the community
– Greater sense of family in the workplace
– Greater affiliation and loyalty
– Power distance lower than non-Aboriginal culture of Canada and the U.S.
– Greater emphasis on consensual decision-making


Exhibit 3-3 Ground Rules for Aboriginal Partnerships

• Modify management operations to reduce negative impact to wildlife species
• Modify operations to ensure community access to lands and resources
• Protect all those areas identified by community members as having biological, cultural and historical significance
• Recognize and protect aboriginal and treaty rights to hunting, fishing, trapping and gathering activities
• Increase forest-based economic opportunities for community members
• Increase the involvement of community members in decision-making

Canadian and American Values

Canadian Values
– Protectionist business environment
– Personality: more shy and deferential, less violent, more courteous
– More rule-oriented
– Peace, order, equality
– Uncomfortable celebrating success, play it down
• American Values
– Greater faith in the family, the state, religion, and the market
– More comfortable with big business
– Intense competition in business
– Individuality and freedom
– More comfortable with the unknown and taking risks

Canada, the US and Mexico

Canada and the US
– Lower power distance
– More likely to tolerate abrasiveness and insensitivity by managers
– Lower risk takers
– More individualistic
– Less agreeable to teamwork
Mexico
– Higher power distance
– Managers more autocratic and paternalistic
– Employees defer more to managers
– Greater uncertainty avoidance
– Managers are greater risk takers
– Greater reliance on networks and relationships

East and Southeast Asian Values

North America
– Networked relations: based on self-interest
– Relationships viewed with immediate gains
– Enforcement relies on institutional law
– Governed by guilt (internal pressures on performance)

East and Southeast Asia
– Guanxi relations: based on reciprocation
– Relationships meant to be long-term and enduring
– Enforcement relies on personal power and authority
– Governed by shame (external pressures on performance)

Attitudes

• Positive or negative feelings concerning objects, people, or events.
• Less stable than values

Types of Attitudes

Job Involvement
– . . . measures the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with his or her job and considers his or her perceived performance level important to self-worth.
Organizational Commitment
– . . . a state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.
• Job Satisfaction
– . . . refers to an individual’s general attitude toward his or her job.

Canadian Job Satisfaction

• In 1991, 62 per cent of employees reported they were highly satisfied with their jobs, compared to just 45 per cent in 2001.
• Almost 40 percent of employees would not recommend their company as a good place to work.
• 40 percent believe they never see any of the benefits of their company making money.
• Almost 40 percent reported that red tape and bureaucracy are among the biggest barriers to job satisfaction.
• 55 percent reported that they felt the “pressure of having too much to do.”

Job Satisfaction and Employee Performance

Satisfaction Affects
Individual Productivity
– Organizational Productivity
– Absenteeism
– Turnover
– Organizational Citizenship Behaviour


Expressing Dissatisfaction

• Exit
• Voice
• Loyalty
• Neglect


Summary and Implications

Values strongly influence a person’s attitudes.
• An employee’s performance and satisfaction are likely to be higher if his or her values fit well with the organization.
• Managers should be interested in their employees’ attitudes because attitudes give warning signs of potential problems and because they influence behaviour.


OB at Work
For Review

1. What are Hofstede’s five value dimensions of national culture?
2. How might differences in generational values affect the workplace?
3. Compare Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal values.
4. How can managers get employees to more readily accept working with colleagues who are different from themselves?
5. Describe three job-related attitudes. What is their relevance to the workplace?
6. Are happy workers productive workers?
7. What is the relationship between job satisfaction and absenteeism? Job satisfaction and turnover? Which is the stronger relationship?

For Critical Thinking

1. “Thirty-five years ago, young employees we hired were ambitious, conscientious, hard-working, and honest. Today’s young workers don’t have the same values.” Do you agree or disagree with this manager’s comments? Support your position.
2. Do you think there might be any positive and significant relationship between the possession of certain personal values and successful career progression in organizations such as Merrill Lynch, the Canadian Union of Postal Workers (CUPW), and the City of Regina’s police department? Discuss.
For Critical Thinking
3. “Managers should do everything they can to enhance the job satisfaction of their employees.” Do you agree or disagree? Support your position.
4. When employees are asked whether they would again choose the same work or whether they would want their children to follow in their footsteps, fewer than half typically answer in the affirmative. What, if anything, do you think this implies about employee job satisfaction?
Breakout Group Exercises

Form small groups to discuss the following topics. Each person in the group should first identify 3 to 5 key personal values.
1. Identify the extent to which values overlap in your group.
2. Try to uncover with your group members the source of some of your key values (e.g., parents, peer group, teachers, church).
3. What kind of workplace would be most suitable for the values that you hold most closely?
Working With Others Exercise

Understanding cultural values
• Break into groups of 5-6. Pretend that half of you have been raised in Canadian culture, and half of you have been raised in another culture assigned by your instructor
– Consider the differences in the two cultures for: power distance, individualism, and uncertainty avoidance
– What challenges will you face working together?
– What steps could be taken to work together more effectively?

Stress and Its Effects

Stress is…

l Ambient
- "It's everywhere, it's everywhere!"
- …and it CAN slip up on you…It's insidious!
l Both external and intrinsic
- Stress is influenced by context

Directly
- Population density; crowding
- Noise "pollution"
o E.g., living near a runway (with jets!)
Less directly
- Academic setting
o The degree one feels pressure to achieve
o MAY be self-imposed


l Culture

Stress is…


l Cumulative
- Whether a single MAJOR event or a series of minor ones,
Stress adds up!
Even everyday demands accumulate

- Know how it feels when someone "gets on your LAST nerve?"
l Is in the eye of the beholder
- It's about perception!

There are 2 steps in the perception of STRESS

1. PRIMARY APPRAISAL
Is the event
…relevant to you?
…relevant but not threatening
...relevant AND threatening
thus, stressful

There are 2 steps in the perception of STRESS SECONDARY APPRAISAL

The evaluation of personal resources to cope w/ the threat...
"Can I deal with this?"
"Do I have "whatever it takes" to meet these problems or challenges?"


How you respond to stress depends on
l Familiarity
- Have I lived through this before?
- What can I improve?
l Controllability
- Bimodal reactions - some feel more stress when in control! "It's up to me??"
Predictability
- Did you see this coming?
Imminence
- Remember the music from Jaws?

Factors influencing reactions to stress

l Social supports
- events are generally less stressful to individuals who receive good social support from friends and family
- share your stresses with somebody else; "no man is an island, no man stands alone"
- self-disclosure is good for you in the long run; share yourself with others for your own good health

Factors influencing reactions to stress

l Person variables in reactions to stress
- according to the interactional model of personality, we are influenced both by the situation we encounter AND our cognitive interpretation of that situation
- stress is in the eye of the beholder
- cognitive factors in stress reactions
u sensitizers: seek out information and think about stress
u repressors: don't worry be happy

Factors influencing reactions to stress

l The "Type A" and "Type B" personality
- a type "A" personality is characterized by someone who is highly competitive, has a sense of time urgency, is perfectionistic, and hostile; they often die of heart attack or stroke
- a type "B" personality is characterized by someone not competitive, not bothered by waiting, is forgiving, and patient; usually die from cancer
Types of stressors

l Acute
- Immediate threat
- Short duration
- But clear ending
l Chronic
- Less immediate
- But of longer duration
- No clear ending

Causes of stress ( external):


l Frustration
- Goal or objective is being thwarted
E.g., failures & losses
l Conflict
- Competing choices
Approach-Approach
- A "win-win" situation
Avoidance-Avoidance
- The "lesser of 2 evils"
Approach-Avoidance *
- "good news/bad news"
- * The key? Eliminate the negative

Causes of stress:

l Change
- Life changes
- Even positive changes make adjustment demands
- Take the Social Readjustment Rating Scale!
How do you fare?
Pressure
- To Perform
- To Conform

Reactions to Frustration

l Aggression: Any response made with the intention of doing harm
l Displaced Aggression: Redirecting aggression to a target other than the source of one's frustration
l Scapegoating: Blaming a person or group for conditions they did not create; the scapegoat is a habitual target of displaced aggression
l Escape: May mean actually leaving a source of frustration (dropping out of school) or psychologically escaping (apathy)


Conflicts

l A stressful condition that occurs when a person must choose between contradictory needs, desires, motives, or demands
l Avoidance-Avoidance Conflicts: Being forced to choose between two negative or undesirable alternatives (e.g., choosing between going to the doctor or contracting cancer)
- NOT choosing may be impossible or undesirable
l Approach-Avoidance Conflicts: Being attracted (drawn to) and repelled by the same goal or activity; attraction keeps person in the situation, but negative aspects can cause distress
- Ambivalence: Mixed positive and negative feelings; central characteristic of approach-avoidance conflicts

Multiple Conflicts

l Double Approach-Avoidance Conflicts: Each alternative has both positive and negative qualities
l Vacillation: When one is attracted to both choices; seeing the positives and negatives of both choices and going "back and forth" before deciding, if deciding at all!
l Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflicts: When several alternatives have positive and negative features

..and how do YOU respond to
We respond to stress in three ways:


1.) Emotional Responses. 2.) Physiological Responses. 3.) Behavioural Responses

How do You Respond To Stress ??

Emotional responses
All of us experience a range of reactions:
Negative:
Range of intensity and magnitude:
Annoyance, anger, and rage
Apprehension, anxiety, and fear
Dejection, sadness, and grief
Positive:
Creativity, flexibility, problem-solving
(Folkman, 1997; Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000; Wortman & Silver, 1987)
Emotional reactions come with physical changes

The effects of emotional arousal:

OPTIMAL LEVEL OF AROUSAL:
- "The Inverted 'U' Hypothesis"

- There is an OPTIMAL LEVEL of AROUSAL
Just enough will PROPEL TO ACTION
Without INTERFERING w/ cognitions or performance!
- Too much is stress
- Too little and we are complacent

Stress Arousal

"Fight or Flight"

Autonomic Nervous System:
Sympathetic &
Para-sympathetic
The endocrine system communicates within the body…pituitary releases ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone), which acts on the adrenal glands:
First on the adrenal medulla, to secrete powerful activation hormones:
e.g., epinephrine (adrenaline),
which increases heart rate, blood pressure, blood flow to muscles, & release of glucose for energy.
General Adaptational Syndrome*
SELYE

l Physiological reactions are similar for different stimuli **
l Three-stage Syndrome:

- ALARM
- RESISTANCE
- EXHAUSTION

l Critique - Individual differences are not explained.
Critique
RE: Similarity in physiological reactions
"Nonspecific reactions" need research to "prove" it's no more than degree (magnitude).
Exhaustion (Selye)
Physiologically depleted
Emotional strain - Helplessness

Behavioral symptoms

The physical problems are REAL but are related to, or caused by psychological factors or emotional distress.


Manifestations

Specific - e.g., hives, headaches
Muscular - e.g., spasms, specific to body part implicated
Chronic - e.g., ulcers, eczema, high blood pressure
Can be debilitating - e.g., migraines, asthma

Example:
Test time stomach upset…
Can anybody relate?



Stress and the Body
Stress suppresses the immune system.
The immune system has several functions that combat disease.
Production of white blood cells (leukocytes).
They recognize and eradicate foreign agents and unhealthy cells.
Foreign substances are called antigens.
The body generates specialized proteins or antibodies to fight antigens.
Inflammation:
is another function of the immune system.
This is increased blood supply which floods the region with white blood cells.

Stress and the Body
Stress and the Immune System.
Psychoneuroimmunology is the study of the relationship among: psychological factors,
the nervous system, the endocrine system,
the immune system, and disease.
One of the reasons stress exhausts us is that it stimulates the production of steroids.
Steroids suppress the functioning of the immune system.
Persistent secretion of steroids decreases inflammation and interferes with the formation of antibodies.
We become more vulnerable to various illnesses.


The value of social support is immeasurable. Emotional well-being has been linked to the quality of relationships. Overall "life satisfaction" data show correlational links with one's social life.

Active efforts to master problems, reduce perceived demands, maintain and tolerate stresses…
Efforts vary in their adaptive value.
We have a tendency to be stylistic; we tend to exhibit an enduring tendency, a consistent stylistic trend, but a single approach has varying effectiveness and adaptive value.


"Adaptational Outcomes"
1. "Choking"
Increased attention to performance yields increased PRESSURE
2. Cognition compromised
A. "Jumping to conclusions"
B. All the options are not even seen
Memory may be impaired
3. Severe Alarm/Stress - "SHOCK"
4. Burnout
"General Erosion of the Spirit"


Autonomic reactivity
Individuals vary:

Sensation-Seeking
E.g., EXTREME SPORTS
Do you qualify?
See the "Sensation-Seeking Scale" (Zuckerman, 1979) in your Personal Explorations Workbook & research by Zuckerman


Clinical Syndromes

BURNOUT - Physical and emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and lowered self-efficacy, generally manifest as a reaction to chronic, cumulative stress; it's a REAL syndrome with physical problems, related to/caused by psychological or emotional distress…often associated with the workplace, e.g., chronic stress exhaustion symptoms
Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome/Disorder - (PTSD)

An persistent disturbance(s) attributable to
the experience of a MAJOR stressful event - which emerges/persists after the event is over.
First associated with Viet Nam Veterans,
the "shell shock" of WW II.
A potentially enduring effect of terrorism, abuse, etc.

Hedges Against Stress:

l Social Support
- Emotional
- Appraisal
- Informational
- Instrumental
l Hardiness
- Commitment
- Challenge
- Control, Internal Locus
l Optimism
- Also stylistic
- Conscientiousness
Diligence
Punctuality
Dependability

The Coping Process

The Text:

PART ONE: THE DYNAMICS OF ADJUSTMENT

Chapter 1
Adjusting to Modern Life
Chapter 2
Theories of Personality
Chapter 3
Stress and Its Effects
Chapter 4
Coping Processes



What is coping?
A. Coping: efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by stress

General points about coping
1. People cope with stress in different ways

2. Individuals have own styles of coping

3. Coping strategies vary in their adaptive value
Coping with stress – difference between Effective and Ineffective ways

Effective coping is characterized by:
efforts to remove the stress
good cognitive coping skills
effectively managing stress reactions
Ineffective coping characterized by:

Withdrawal from social supports
Aggression and exaggerated use of Defense mechanisms
Ineffective or absent problem-solving skills

Common Patterns of Coping:
Behavioral Disengagement

Giving Up... "Learned Helplessness"
Passivity stems from unavoidable aversive events Key:
Perception of "no control”
Aggression
Lashing out, directly or due to displacement*
Catharsis? Or just “making matters worse?”
Self-Indulgence
drink to forget? (chocoholics beware!)
May also include Internet Addictions, immersion or “escape” in the Web The key: develop
alternative behaviors and alternative rewards.
Self-Blame
unreasonable self-deprecation
focus on negative feedback - but not constructively...pessimistic future focus
*Defense Mechanisms
Learned Helplessness (Seligman)
Acquired (learned) inability to overcome obstacles and avoid aversive stimuli; learned passivity
Occurs when events appear to be uncontrollable
May feel helpless if failure is attributed to lasting, general factors


Defense Mechanisms *
Primarily Unconscious
self-protective as they “guard against negative emotions

Examples: Denial
Intellectualization
Fantasy
Overcompensation
Undoing


Disadvantages

Self-Deception
Not as likely to reduce stressor
Delays or diverts energy
Distorts Reality


Defence mechanisms reduce Anxiety
Feelings of tension, uneasiness, apprehension, worry, and vulnerability
We are motivated to avoid experiencing anxiety

Freudian Defense Mechanisms: Psychological Defenders of You!
Defense Mechanisms: Habitual and unconscious (in most cases) psychological processes designed to reduce anxiety
Work by avoiding, denying, or distorting sources of threat or anxiety
If used short term, can help us get through everyday situations
If used long term, we may end up not living in reality
Protect idealized self-image so we can live with ourselves
Freudian Defense Mechanisms:
Some Examples
Denial: Most primitive; denying reality; usually occurs with death and illness
Repression: When painful memories, anxieties, and so on are held out of our awareness
Projection: When one’s own feelings, shortcomings, or unacceptable traits and impulses are seen in others; exaggerating negative traits in others lowers anxiety
Rationalization: Justifying personal actions by giving “rational” but false reasons for them
Reaction Formation: Impulses are repressed and the opposite behavior is exaggerated

Constructive Coping
What makes a coping strategy constructive?

1. Involves confronting problems directly
2. Based on realistic appraisals of one's stress and coping resources
3. Involves learning to recognize potentially disruptive emotional reactions to stress
4. Involves learning to exert control over potentially harmful habitual behaviors

A. Constructive coping refers to efforts to deal with stressful events that are judged to be relatively healthful

1. Unrelated to "academic" intelligence

2. Favorably related to mental and physical health, and to measures of success

3. Constructive thinkers tend to create less stress for themselves


3 Types of Strategies (Moos/Billings, 1982)

1. Appraisal-Focused (Ellis - RET)

2. Problem-Focused (problem-solving)

3. Emotion-Focused ("Relax!" Aaugh...)
Appraisal-Focused Coping
Proponent: Albert Ellis
Rational Emotive Therapy

The Enemy: Catastrophic Thinking

Goal - "Get Real!!!"

A-B-C

A - Activating Event
B - Belief System
C - Consequence
Constructive Coping

The word “rational” means that

Reason is not the enemy of emotion

Reason does not block any emotions but only blocks self-defeating emotions

Disruptful emotions are largely the result of irrational and catastrophic thinking


Emotion-Focused Problem Solving

CAN be highly charged…

Some people really do tend to
“awfulize everything…”

“It’s sooooo awful that…”
“Did you hear about…
How awful!!!”

Some common irrational beliefs

Its horrible when things aren’t the way I want them to be
I must be loved or approved by everyone around me
I must be thoroughly competent, adequate, and achieving in order to be worthwhile
There is nothing much I can do about my life, sorrows
There is always a perfect solution to all problems in life


The world – especially other people – must be fair and justice must triumph
One must always respect authority
Rational Emotive Therapy takes on faulty beliefs, for example, in child rearing:

1.Children must not question their parents
2.Children must not disagree with their elders!
3.A child and his/her behavior are the same;


thus, “bad behavior, bad child!”

1.Children can upset their parents.
2.Guilt is an effective method to make your child do what 3.you what them to…
4.Children “deserve” the blame for their MIS- management.
5.Children learn more from what their elders say than what they do.



How to improve
Emotion-focused coping

“Sometimes you just gotta laugh…”

Humor
lessens the impact
of stress and brightens your day…
besides, it has great physical benefits!

How to improve
Emotion-focused coping
Positive Reinterpretation
Release pent-up emotions
Learn how gradually
Don’t let negative feelings build up
Get your mind on something else!
Develop strategies to deal with the feelings
Mediation and relaxation
Systematic desensitization
Problem Focused Coping
AKA:
Systematic Problem Solving


Problem - Focused Coping
Systematic Problem-Solving
Seek Help
Identify resources
e.g., instrumental assistance
Time Management
Monitor & protect your time!
Don’t procrastinate; use a schedule, calendar, organizer
Prioritize goals & delegate what you can
Improving Self-Control
Count to ten! Refrain from action till cool.

Develop strategies of CONSTRUCTIVE COPING;
get the
emotional
To work for you!


Emotional intelligence
Monitor, access, express, & regulate your own emotions
Identify, interpret, & understand others’ emotion
Integrate them into thoughtful action
Inhibition
Expression vs. disclosure


When things don’t get done, how do YOU feel?
Emotional intelligence

Monitor, access, express, & regulate your own emotions

Emotional management

Distraction

Recognition of negative feelings

Hostility can be damaging

Evaluate actions BEFORE you act

Meditate

Reduce physiological agitation…

Relax!

Manage behavioral expression

Organizational Culture and Change

Organizational Culture

• What is organizational culture?
• When is organizational culture functional? Dysfunctional?
• How do employees learn about the culture of their organization?

THE WAY THINGS ARE DONE AROUND HERE



Components of Organizational Culture

• Routine behaviors.
• Norms shared by teams.
• Dominant values.
• Guiding philosophy for policies toward employees and customers.
• The rules of the game for getting along in the organization.
• The climate of the organization.


Henry Mintzberg on Culture


• “Culture is the soul of the organization — the beliefs and values, and how they are manifested. I think of the structure as the skeleton, and as the flesh and blood. And culture is the soul that holds the thing together and gives it life force.”

Organizational Culture

• The pattern of shared values, beliefs and assumptions considered to be the appropriate way to think and act within an organization.
– Culture is shared
– Culture helps members solve problems
– Culture is taught to newcomers
– Culture strongly influences behaviour



Exhibit 10-1 Layers of Culture Levels of Culture


• Artifacts
– Aspects of an organization’s culture that you see, hear, and feel
• Beliefs
– The understandings of how objects and ideas relate to each other
• Values
– The stable, long-lasting beliefs about what is important
• Assumptions
– The taken-for-granted notions of how something should be in an organization

Characteristics of Organizational Culture

• Innovation and risk-taking
– The degree to which employees are encouraged to be innovative and take risks.
• Attention to detail
– The degree to which employees are expected to exhibit precision, analysis, and attention to detail.
• Outcome orientation
– The degree to which management focuses on results or outcomes rather than on technique and process.
• People orientation
– The degree to which management decisions take into consideration the effect of outcomes on people within the organization.
• Team orientation
– The degree to which work activities are organized around teams rather than individuals.
• Aggressiveness
– The degree to which people are aggressive and competitive rather than easygoing.
• Stability
– The degree to which organizational activities emphasize maintaining the status quo in contrast to growth.

Do Organizations Have Uniform Cultures?

• Organizational culture represents a common perception held by the organization members.
• Core values or dominant (primary) values are accepted throughout the organization
.
– Dominant culture
• Expresses the core values that are shared by a majority of the organization’s members.
– Subcultures
• Tend to develop in large organizations to reflect common problems, situations, or experiences.

Keeping a Culture Alive

Selection
– Identify and hire individuals who will fit in with the culture
Top Management
– Senior executives establish and communicate the norms of the organization
Socialization
– Organizations need to teach the culture to new employees

Culture’s Functions

• Social glue that helps hold an organization together
– Provides appropriate standards for what employees should say or do
• Boundary-defining
• Conveys a sense of identity for organization members
• Facilitates commitment to something larger than one’s individual self-interest
• Enhances social system stability
• Serves as a “sense-making” and control mechanism
– Guides and shapes the attitudes and behaviour of employees


Culture as a Liability

• Culture can have dysfunctional aspects in some instances
– Culture as a Barrier to Change
• When organization is undergoing change, culture may impede change
– Culture as a Barrier to Diversity
• Strong cultures put considerable pressure on employees to conform
– Culture as a Barrier to Mergers and Acquisitions
• Merging the cultures of two organizations can be difficult, if not impossible

Conditions for Culture Change

• A dramatic crisis
• Turnover in leadership
• Young and small organizations
• Weak culture

How Employees Can Change Unethical Behavior

• Secretly or publicly reporting unethical actions to a higher level within the organization.
• Secretly or publicly reporting unethical actions outside the organization.
• Secretly or publicly threatening an offender or responsible manager with reporting unethical actions.
• Quietly or publicly refusing to implement an unethical order or policy.

Actions Organizations Can Take to Develop an Ethical Culture

• Be realistic in setting values and goals regarding employee relationships.
• Encourage input from organization members regarding appropriate values and practices for implementing the culture.
• Do not automatically opt for a “strong” culture.
• Provide training on adopting and implementing the organization’s values.

Exhibit 10-6 Suggestions for Changing Culture

• Have top-management people become positive role models, setting the tone through their behaviour.
• Create new stories, symbols, and rituals to replace those currently in vogue.
• Select, promote, and support employees who espouse the new values that are sought.
• Redesign socialization processes to align with the new values.


Exhibit 10-6 Suggestions for Changing Culture (cont’d)

• Change the reward system to encourage acceptance of a new set of values.
• Replace unwritten norms with formal rules and regulations that are tightly enforced.
• Shake up current subcultures through transfers, job rotation, and/or terminations.
• Work to get peer group consensus through utilization of employee participation and creation of a climate with a high level of trust.


Exhibit 10-7 Lewin’s Three-Step Change Model




Implementing Change

• Unfreezing: getting ready for change
– Minimizing resistance
• Moving: making the change
– Changing people (individuals and groups); Tasks; Structure; Technology
• Refreezing: stabilizing the change
– Reinforcing outcomes, evaluating results, making constructive modifications

Exhibit 10-8
Unfreezing the Status Quo




Unfreezing

• Arouse dissatisfaction with the current state

– Tell them about deficiencies in organization
• Activate and strengthen top management support
– Need to break down power centres
• Use participation in decision making
– Get people involved
• Build in rewards
– Tie rewards to change/use recognition, status symbols, praise to get people to go along

Moving

• Establish goals
– E.G. Make business profitable by end of next year
• Institute smaller, acceptable changes that reinforce and support change
– E.G. Procedures and rules, job descriptions, reporting relationships
• Develop management structures for change
– E.G. Plans, strategies, mechanisms that ensure change occurs
• Maintain open, two-way communication

Refreezing

• Build success experiences

– Set targets for change, and have everyone work toward targets
• Reward desired behaviour
– GOOD - reward behaviour that reinforces changes
– BAD - reward old system (e.g., people relying on old systems while computerization is going on)
• Develop structures to institutionalize the change
– Organizational retreats, appropriate computer technology, performance appraisals that examine change efforts
• Make change work



Exhibit 10-9 Sources of Individual Resistance to Change
Cynicism About Change

• Feeling uninformed about what was happening
• Lack of communication and respect from one’s supervisor
• Lack of communication and respect from one’s union representative
• Lack of opportunity for meaningful participation in decision-making

Exhibit 10-11 Sources of Organizational Resistance to Change




Overcoming Resistance to Change

• Education and Communication
– This tactic assumes that the source of resistance lies in misinformation or poor communication.
• Participation
– Prior to making a change, those opposed can be brought into the decision process.
• Facilitation and Support
– The provision of various efforts to facilitate adjustment.

Overcoming Resistance to Change

Negotiation
– Exchange something of value for a lessening of resistance.
• Manipulation and Cooperation
– Twisting and distorting facts to make them appear more attractive.
• Coercion
– The application of direct threats or force upon resisters.

Summary and Implications

• Employees form an overall subjective perception of the organization based on such factors as degree of risk tolerance, team emphasis, and support of people.
– This overall perception becomes, in effect, the organization’s culture or personality.
– These favourable or unfavourable perceptions then affect employee performance and satisfaction, with the impact being greater for stronger cultures.
• Just as people’s personalities tend to be stable over time, so too do strong cultures.
– This makes strong cultures difficult for managers to change.


Summary and Implications

• One of the more important managerial implications of organizational culture relates to selection decisions.
– Hiring individuals whose values don't align with those of the organization is not good.
• Change must be managed, it is not an easy process
• Individuals and organizations resist change
– To be successful at change, it is necessary to break down the resistance to change

OB at Work
For Review


1. Can an employee survive in an organization if he or she rejects its core values? Explain.
2. How can an outsider assess an organization’s culture?
3. What defines an organization’s subcultures?
4. How can culture be a liability to an organization?
5. What benefits can socialization provide for the organization? For the new employee?

For Review

6. Describe four cultural types and the characteristics of employees who fit best with each.
7. How does Lewin’s three-step model of change deal with resistance to change?
8. What is the difference between driving forces and restraining forces?
9. What are the factors that lead individuals to resist change?
10. What are the factors that lead organizations to resist change?

For Critical Thinking

1. Contrast individual personality and organizational culture. How are they similar? How are they different?
• Is socialization brainwashing? Explain.
• Can you identify a set of characteristics that describes your college’s or university’s culture? Compare them with several of your peers. How closely do they agree?
• “Resistance to change is an irrational response.” Do you agree or disagree? Explain.


Breakout Group Exercises

• Form small groups to discuss the following:

1. Choose two courses that you are taking this term, ideally in different faculties, and describe the culture of the classroom in each. What are the similarities and differences? What values about learning might you infer from your observations of culture?
2. Identify artifacts of culture in your current or previous workplace. From these artifacts, would you conclude that the organization had a strong or weak culture?
3. Reflect on either the culture of one of your classes, or the culture of the organization where you work, and identify aspects of that culture that could be changed. How might some of these changes be made?