Values, Attitudes, and Their Effects in the Workplace

Values, Attitudes, and Their Effects in the Workplace What are values? How can we understand values across cultures? Are there unique Canadian values? Why are differences in values important? What are attitudes and how are they formed? What is job satisfaction? Values • Values – Basic convictions about what is important to the individual – They contain a judgmental element of what is right, good, or desirable. Values – Types of values • Terminal: Goals that individuals would like to achieve during their lifetime • Instrumental: Preferable ways of behaving – Importance of values • Values generally influence attitudes and behaviour. Values vs. Ethics • Ethics – The science of morals in human conduct – Moral principles; rules of conduct • Ethical Values are related to moral judgments about right and wrong A Framework for Assessing Cultural Values • Hofstede’s Dimensions – Power Distance – Individualism Versus Collectivism – Quantity of Life Versus Quality of Life – Uncertainty Avoidance – Long-term versus Short-term Orientation

Exhibit 3-2 Examples of National Cultural ValuesCanadian Social Values • The Elders – Those over 50 – Core Values: Belief in order, authority, discipline, and the Golden Rule • The Boomers – Born mid-1940s to mid-1960s – Autonomous rebels, anxious communitarians, connected enthusiasts, disengaged Darwinists Canadian Social Values • Generation X – Born mid-1960s to early 1980s – Thrill-seeking materialists, aimless dependents, social hedonists, new Aquarians, autonomous post-materialists • The Ne(x)t Generation – Born between 1977 and 1997 – “Creators, not recipients” – Curious, contrarian, flexible, collaborative, high in self-esteem Francophone and Anglophone Values • Francophone Values – More collectivist or group-oriented – Greater need for achievement – Concerned with interpersonal aspects of workplace – Value affiliation • Anglophone Values – Individualist or I-centred – More task-centred – Take more risks – Value autonomy Canadian Aboriginal Values – More collectivist in orientation – More likely to reflect and advance the goals of the community – Greater sense of family in the workplace – Greater affiliation and loyalty – Power distance lower than non-Aboriginal culture of Canada and the U.S. – Greater emphasis on consensual decision-making Exhibit 3-3 Ground Rules for Aboriginal Partnerships • Modify management operations to reduce negative impact to wildlife species • Modify operations to ensure community access to lands and resources • Protect all those areas identified by community members as having biological, cultural and historical significance • Recognize and protect aboriginal and treaty rights to hunting, fishing, trapping and gathering activities • Increase forest-based economic opportunities for community members • Increase the involvement of community members in decision-making Canadian and American Values • Canadian Values – Protectionist business environment – Personality: more shy and deferential, less violent, more courteous – More rule-oriented – Peace, order, equality – Uncomfortable celebrating success, play it down • American Values – Greater faith in the family, the state, religion, and the market – More comfortable with big business – Intense competition in business – Individuality and freedom – More comfortable with the unknown and taking risks Canada, the US and Mexico • Canada and the US – Lower power distance – More likely to tolerate abrasiveness and insensitivity by managers – Lower risk takers – More individualistic – Less agreeable to teamwork • Mexico – Higher power distance – Managers more autocratic and paternalistic – Employees defer more to managers – Greater uncertainty avoidance – Managers are greater risk takers – Greater reliance on networks and relationships East and Southeast Asian Values • North America – Networked relations: based on self-interest – Relationships viewed with immediate gains – Enforcement relies on institutional law – Governed by guilt (internal pressures on performance) • East and Southeast Asia – Guanxi relations: based on reciprocation – Relationships meant to be long-term and enduring – Enforcement relies on personal power and authority – Governed by shame (external pressures on performance) Attitudes • Positive or negative feelings concerning objects, people, or events. • Less stable than values Types of Attitudes • Job Involvement – . . . measures the degree to which a person identifies psychologically with his or her job and considers his or her perceived performance level important to self-worth. • Organizational Commitment – . . . a state in which an employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals, and wishes to maintain membership in the organization. • Job Satisfaction – . . . refers to an individual’s general attitude toward his or her job. Canadian Job Satisfaction • In 1991, 62 per cent of employees reported they were highly satisfied with their jobs, compared to just 45 per cent in 2001. • Almost 40 percent of employees would not recommend their company as a good place to work. • 40 percent believe they never see any of the benefits of their company making money. • Almost 40 percent reported that red tape and bureaucracy are among the biggest barriers to job satisfaction. • 55 percent reported that they felt the “pressure of having too much to do.” Job Satisfaction and Employee Performance • Satisfaction Affects – Individual Productivity – Organizational Productivity – Absenteeism – Turnover – Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Expressing Dissatisfaction • Exit • Voice • Loyalty • Neglect Summary and Implications • Values strongly influence a person’s attitudes. • An employee’s performance and satisfaction are likely to be higher if his or her values fit well with the organization. • Managers should be interested in their employees’ attitudes because attitudes give warning signs of potential problems and because they influence behaviour. OB at Work For Review 1. What are Hofstede’s five value dimensions of national culture? 2. How might differences in generational values affect the workplace? 3. Compare Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal values. 4. How can managers get employees to more readily accept working with colleagues who are different from themselves? 5. Describe three job-related attitudes. What is their relevance to the workplace? 6. Are happy workers productive workers? 7. What is the relationship between job satisfaction and absenteeism? Job satisfaction and turnover? Which is the stronger relationship? For Critical Thinking 1. “Thirty-five years ago, young employees we hired were ambitious, conscientious, hard-working, and honest. Today’s young workers don’t have the same values.” Do you agree or disagree with this manager’s comments? Support your position. 2. Do you think there might be any positive and significant relationship between the possession of certain personal values and successful career progression in organizations such as Merrill Lynch, the Canadian Union of Postal Workers (CUPW), and the City of Regina’s police department? Discuss. For Critical Thinking 3. “Managers should do everything they can to enhance the job satisfaction of their employees.” Do you agree or disagree? Support your position. 4. When employees are asked whether they would again choose the same work or whether they would want their children to follow in their footsteps, fewer than half typically answer in the affirmative. What, if anything, do you think this implies about employee job satisfaction? Breakout Group Exercises Form small groups to discuss the following topics. Each person in the group should first identify 3 to 5 key personal values. 1. Identify the extent to which values overlap in your group. 2. Try to uncover with your group members the source of some of your key values (e.g., parents, peer group, teachers, church). 3. What kind of workplace would be most suitable for the values that you hold most closely? Working With Others Exercise Understanding cultural values • Break into groups of 5-6. Pretend that half of you have been raised in Canadian culture, and half of you have been raised in another culture assigned by your instructor – Consider the differences in the two cultures for: power distance, individualism, and uncertainty avoidance – What challenges will you face working together? – What steps could be taken to work together more effectively?

Stress and Its Effects

Stress is…

l Ambient
- "It's everywhere, it's everywhere!"
- …and it CAN slip up on you…It's insidious!
l Both external and intrinsic
- Stress is influenced by context
Directly
- Population density; crowding
- Noise "pollution"
o E.g., living near a runway (with jets!)
Less directly
- Academic setting
o The degree one feels pressure to achieve
o MAY be self-imposed

l Culture

Stress is…

l Cumulative
- Whether a single MAJOR event or a series of minor ones,
Stress adds up!
Even everyday demands accumulate
- Know how it feels when someone "gets on your LAST nerve?"
l Is in the eye of the beholder
- It's about perception!

There are 2 steps in the perception of STRESS

1. PRIMARY APPRAISAL
Is the event
…relevant to you?
…relevant but not threatening
...relevant AND threatening
thus, stressful

There are 2 steps in the perception of STRESS SECONDARY APPRAISAL

The evaluation of personal resources to cope w/ the threat...
"Can I deal with this?"
"Do I have "whatever it takes" to meet these problems or challenges?"


How you respond to stress depends on
l Familiarity
- Have I lived through this before?
- What can I improve?
l Controllability
- Bimodal reactions - some feel more stress when in control! "It's up to me??"
Predictability
- Did you see this coming?
Imminence
- Remember the music from Jaws?

Factors influencing reactions to stress

l Social supports
- events are generally less stressful to individuals who receive good social support from friends and family
- share your stresses with somebody else; "no man is an island, no man stands alone"
- self-disclosure is good for you in the long run; share yourself with others for your own good health

Factors influencing reactions to stress

l Person variables in reactions to stress
- according to the interactional model of personality, we are influenced both by the situation we encounter AND our cognitive interpretation of that situation
- stress is in the eye of the beholder
- cognitive factors in stress reactions
u sensitizers: seek out information and think about stress
u repressors: don't worry be happy

Factors influencing reactions to stress

l The "Type A" and "Type B" personality

- a type "A" personality is characterized by someone who is highly competitive, has a sense of time urgency, is perfectionistic, and hostile; they often die of heart attack or stroke
- a type "B" personality is characterized by someone not competitive, not bothered by waiting, is forgiving, and patient; usually die from cancer

Types of stressors

l Acute
- Immediate threat
- Short duration
- But clear ending
l Chronic
- Less immediate
- But of longer duration
- No clear ending

Causes of stress ( external):

l Frustration
- Goal or objective is being thwarted
E.g., failures & losses
l Conflict
- Competing choices
Approach-Approach
- A "win-win" situation
Avoidance-Avoidance
- The "lesser of 2 evils"
Approach-Avoidance *
- "good news/bad news"
- * The key? Eliminate the negative

Causes of stress:

l Change
- Life changes
- Even positive changes make adjustment demands
- Take the Social Readjustment Rating Scale!
How do you fare?
Pressure
- To Perform
- To Conform

Reactions to Frustration

l Aggression: Any response made with the intention of doing harm
l Displaced Aggression: Redirecting aggression to a target other than the source of one's frustration
l Scapegoating: Blaming a person or group for conditions they did not create; the scapegoat is a habitual target of displaced aggression
l Escape: May mean actually leaving a source of frustration (dropping out of school) or psychologically escaping (apathy)


Conflicts

l A stressful condition that occurs when a person must choose between contradictory needs, desires, motives, or demands
l Avoidance-Avoidance Conflicts: Being forced to choose between two negative or undesirable alternatives (e.g., choosing between going to the doctor or contracting cancer)
- NOT choosing may be impossible or undesirable
l Approach-Avoidance Conflicts: Being attracted (drawn to) and repelled by the same goal or activity; attraction keeps person in the situation, but negative aspects can cause distress
- Ambivalence: Mixed positive and negative feelings; central characteristic of approach-avoidance conflicts

Multiple Conflicts

l Double Approach-Avoidance Conflicts: Each alternative has both positive and negative qualities
l Vacillation: When one is attracted to both choices; seeing the positives and negatives of both choices and going "back and forth" before deciding, if deciding at all!
l Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflicts: When several alternatives have positive and negative features

..and how do YOU respond to
We respond to stress in three ways:

1.) Emotional Responses. 2.) Physiological Responses. 3.) Behavioural Responses

How do You Respond To Stress ??

Emotional responses
All of us experience a range of reactions:
Negative:
Range of intensity and magnitude:
Annoyance, anger, and rage
Apprehension, anxiety, and fear
Dejection, sadness, and grief
Positive:
Creativity, flexibility, problem-solving
(Folkman, 1997; Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000; Wortman & Silver, 1987)
Emotional reactions come with physical changes

The effects of emotional arousal:

OPTIMAL LEVEL OF AROUSAL:
- "The Inverted 'U' Hypothesis"

- There is an OPTIMAL LEVEL of AROUSAL
Just enough will PROPEL TO ACTION
Without INTERFERING w/ cognitions or performance!
- Too much is stress
- Too little and we are complacent

Stress Arousal

"Fight or Flight"

Autonomic Nervous System:
Sympathetic &
Para-sympathetic
The endocrine system communicates within the body…pituitary releases ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone), which acts on the adrenal glands:
First on the adrenal medulla, to secrete powerful activation hormones:
e.g., epinephrine (adrenaline),
which increases heart rate, blood pressure, blood flow to muscles, & release of glucose for energy.
General Adaptational Syndrome*
SELYE

l Physiological reactions are similar for different stimuli **
l Three-stage Syndrome:
- ALARM
- RESISTANCE
- EXHAUSTION
l Critique - Individual differences are not explained.
Critique
RE: Similarity in physiological reactions
"Nonspecific reactions" need research to "prove" it's no more than degree (magnitude).
Exhaustion (Selye)
Physiologically depleted
Emotional strain - Helplessness

Behavioral symptoms

The physical problems are REAL but are related to, or caused by psychological factors or emotional distress.

Manifestations

Specific - e.g., hives, headaches
Muscular - e.g., spasms, specific to body part implicated
Chronic - e.g., ulcers, eczema, high blood pressure
Can be debilitating - e.g., migraines, asthma

Example:
Test time stomach upset…
Can anybody relate?


Stress and the Body
Stress suppresses the immune system.
The immune system has several functions that combat disease.
Production of white blood cells (leukocytes).
They recognize and eradicate foreign agents and unhealthy cells.
Foreign substances are called antigens.
The body generates specialized proteins or antibodies to fight antigens.
Inflammation:
is another function of the immune system.
This is increased blood supply which floods the region with white blood cells.

Stress and the Body
Stress and the Immune System.
Psychoneuroimmunology is the study of the relationship among: psychological factors,
the nervous system, the endocrine system,
the immune system, and disease.
One of the reasons stress exhausts us is that it stimulates the production of steroids.
Steroids suppress the functioning of the immune system.
Persistent secretion of steroids decreases inflammation and interferes with the formation of antibodies.
We become more vulnerable to various illnesses.


The value of social support is immeasurable. Emotional well-being has been linked to the quality of relationships. Overall "life satisfaction" data show correlational links with one's social life.

Active efforts to master problems, reduce perceived demands, maintain and tolerate stresses…
Efforts vary in their adaptive value.
We have a tendency to be stylistic; we tend to exhibit an enduring tendency, a consistent stylistic trend, but a single approach has varying effectiveness and adaptive value.

"Adaptational Outcomes"
1. "Choking"
Increased attention to performance yields increased PRESSURE
2. Cognition compromised
A. "Jumping to conclusions"
B. All the options are not even seen
Memory may be impaired
3. Severe Alarm/Stress - "SHOCK"
4. Burnout
"General Erosion of the Spirit"

Autonomic reactivity
Individuals vary:

Sensation-Seeking
E.g., EXTREME SPORTS
Do you qualify?
See the "Sensation-Seeking Scale" (Zuckerman, 1979) in your Personal Explorations Workbook & research by Zuckerman

Clinical Syndromes

BURNOUT - Physical and emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and lowered self-efficacy, generally manifest as a reaction to chronic, cumulative stress; it's a REAL syndrome with physical problems, related to/caused by psychological or emotional distress…often associated with the workplace, e.g., chronic stress exhaustion symptoms
Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome/Disorder - (PTSD)
An persistent disturbance(s) attributable to
the experience of a MAJOR stressful event - which emerges/persists after the event is over.
First associated with Viet Nam Veterans,
the "shell shock" of WW II.
A potentially enduring effect of terrorism, abuse, etc.

Hedges Against Stress:

l Social Support
- Emotional
- Appraisal
- Informational
- Instrumental
l Hardiness
- Commitment
- Challenge
- Control, Internal Locus
l Optimism
- Also stylistic
- Conscientiousness
Diligence
Punctuality
Dependability

The Coping Process

The Text: PART ONE: THE DYNAMICS OF ADJUSTMENT Chapter 1 Adjusting to Modern Life Chapter 2 Theories of Personality Chapter 3 Stress and Its Effects Chapter 4 Coping Processes What is coping? A. Coping: efforts to master, reduce, or tolerate the demands created by stress General points about coping 1. People cope with stress in different ways 2. Individuals have own styles of coping 3. Coping strategies vary in their adaptive value Coping with stress – difference between Effective and Ineffective ways Effective coping is characterized by: efforts to remove the stress good cognitive coping skills effectively managing stress reactions Ineffective coping characterized by: Withdrawal from social supports Aggression and exaggerated use of Defense mechanisms Ineffective or absent problem-solving skills

Common Patterns of Coping: Behavioral Disengagement Giving Up... "Learned Helplessness" Passivity stems from unavoidable aversive events Key: Perception of "no control” Aggression Lashing out, directly or due to displacement* Catharsis? Or just “making matters worse?” Self-Indulgence drink to forget? (chocoholics beware!) May also include Internet Addictions, immersion or “escape” in the Web The key: develop alternative behaviors and alternative rewards. Self-Blame unreasonable self-deprecation focus on negative feedback - but not constructively...pessimistic future focus *Defense Mechanisms Learned Helplessness (Seligman) Acquired (learned) inability to overcome obstacles and avoid aversive stimuli; learned passivity Occurs when events appear to be uncontrollable May feel helpless if failure is attributed to lasting, general factors Defense Mechanisms * Primarily Unconscious self-protective as they “guard against negative emotions Examples: Denial Intellectualization Fantasy Overcompensation Undoing Disadvantages Self-Deception Not as likely to reduce stressor Delays or diverts energy Distorts Reality Defence mechanisms reduce Anxiety Feelings of tension, uneasiness, apprehension, worry, and vulnerability We are motivated to avoid experiencing anxiety Freudian Defense Mechanisms: Psychological Defenders of You! Defense Mechanisms: Habitual and unconscious (in most cases) psychological processes designed to reduce anxiety Work by avoiding, denying, or distorting sources of threat or anxiety If used short term, can help us get through everyday situations If used long term, we may end up not living in reality Protect idealized self-image so we can live with ourselves Freudian Defense Mechanisms: Some Examples Denial: Most primitive; denying reality; usually occurs with death and illness Repression: When painful memories, anxieties, and so on are held out of our awareness Projection: When one’s own feelings, shortcomings, or unacceptable traits and impulses are seen in others; exaggerating negative traits in others lowers anxiety Rationalization: Justifying personal actions by giving “rational” but false reasons for them Reaction Formation: Impulses are repressed and the opposite behavior is exaggerated Constructive Coping What makes a coping strategy constructive? 1. Involves confronting problems directly 2. Based on realistic appraisals of one's stress and coping resources 3. Involves learning to recognize potentially disruptive emotional reactions to stress 4. Involves learning to exert control over potentially harmful habitual behaviors A. Constructive coping refers to efforts to deal with stressful events that are judged to be relatively healthful 1. Unrelated to "academic" intelligence 2. Favorably related to mental and physical health, and to measures of success 3. Constructive thinkers tend to create less stress for themselves 3 Types of Strategies (Moos/Billings, 1982) 1. Appraisal-Focused (Ellis - RET) 2. Problem-Focused (problem-solving) 3. Emotion-Focused ("Relax!" Aaugh...) Appraisal-Focused Coping Proponent: Albert Ellis Rational Emotive Therapy The Enemy: Catastrophic Thinking Goal - "Get Real!!!" A-B-C A - Activating Event B - Belief System C - Consequence Constructive Coping The word “rational” means that Reason is not the enemy of emotion Reason does not block any emotions but only blocks self-defeating emotions Disruptful emotions are largely the result of irrational and catastrophic thinking Emotion-Focused Problem Solving CAN be highly charged… Some people really do tend to “awfulize everything…” “It’s sooooo awful that…” “Did you hear about… How awful!!!” Some common irrational beliefs Its horrible when things aren’t the way I want them to be I must be loved or approved by everyone around me I must be thoroughly competent, adequate, and achieving in order to be worthwhile There is nothing much I can do about my life, sorrows There is always a perfect solution to all problems in life The world – especially other people – must be fair and justice must triumph One must always respect authority Rational Emotive Therapy takes on faulty beliefs, for example, in child rearing: 1.Children must not question their parents 2.Children must not disagree with their elders! 3.A child and his/her behavior are the same; thus, “bad behavior, bad child!” 1.Children can upset their parents. 2.Guilt is an effective method to make your child do what 3.you what them to… 4.Children “deserve” the blame for their MIS- management. 5.Children learn more from what their elders say than what they do. How to improve Emotion-focused coping “Sometimes you just gotta laugh…” Humor lessens the impact of stress and brightens your day… besides, it has great physical benefits! How to improve Emotion-focused coping Positive Reinterpretation Release pent-up emotions Learn how gradually Don’t let negative feelings build up Get your mind on something else! Develop strategies to deal with the feelings Mediation and relaxation Systematic desensitization Problem Focused Coping AKA: Systematic Problem Solving Problem - Focused Coping Systematic Problem-Solving Seek Help Identify resources e.g., instrumental assistance Time Management Monitor & protect your time! Don’t procrastinate; use a schedule, calendar, organizer Prioritize goals & delegate what you can Improving Self-Control Count to ten! Refrain from action till cool. Develop strategies of CONSTRUCTIVE COPING; get the emotional To work for you! Emotional intelligence Monitor, access, express, & regulate your own emotions Identify, interpret, & understand others’ emotion Integrate them into thoughtful action Inhibition Expression vs. disclosure When things don’t get done, how do YOU feel? Emotional intelligence Monitor, access, express, & regulate your own emotions Emotional management Distraction Recognition of negative feelings Hostility can be damaging Evaluate actions BEFORE you act Meditate Reduce physiological agitation… Relax! Manage behavioral expression

Organizational Culture and Change

Organizational Culture • What is organizational culture? • When is organizational culture functional? Dysfunctional? • How do employees learn about the culture of their organization? • THE WAY THINGS ARE DONE AROUND HERE Components of Organizational Culture • Routine behaviors. • Norms shared by teams. • Dominant values. • Guiding philosophy for policies toward employees and customers. • The rules of the game for getting along in the organization. • The climate of the organization. Henry Mintzberg on Culture • “Culture is the soul of the organization — the beliefs and values, and how they are manifested. I think of the structure as the skeleton, and as the flesh and blood. And culture is the soul that holds the thing together and gives it life force.” Organizational Culture • The pattern of shared values, beliefs and assumptions considered to be the appropriate way to think and act within an organization. – Culture is shared – Culture helps members solve problems – Culture is taught to newcomers – Culture strongly influences behaviour

Exhibit 10-1 Layers of Culture Levels of Culture • Artifacts – Aspects of an organization’s culture that you see, hear, and feel • Beliefs – The understandings of how objects and ideas relate to each other • Values – The stable, long-lasting beliefs about what is important • Assumptions – The taken-for-granted notions of how something should be in an organization Characteristics of Organizational Culture • Innovation and risk-taking – The degree to which employees are encouraged to be innovative and take risks. • Attention to detail – The degree to which employees are expected to exhibit precision, analysis, and attention to detail. • Outcome orientation – The degree to which management focuses on results or outcomes rather than on technique and process. • People orientation – The degree to which management decisions take into consideration the effect of outcomes on people within the organization. • Team orientation – The degree to which work activities are organized around teams rather than individuals. • Aggressiveness – The degree to which people are aggressive and competitive rather than easygoing. • Stability – The degree to which organizational activities emphasize maintaining the status quo in contrast to growth. Do Organizations Have Uniform Cultures? • Organizational culture represents a common perception held by the organization members. • Core values or dominant (primary) values are accepted throughout the organization. – Dominant culture • Expresses the core values that are shared by a majority of the organization’s members. – Subcultures • Tend to develop in large organizations to reflect common problems, situations, or experiences. Keeping a Culture Alive • Selection – Identify and hire individuals who will fit in with the culture • Top Management – Senior executives establish and communicate the norms of the organization • Socialization – Organizations need to teach the culture to new employees Culture’s Functions • Social glue that helps hold an organization together – Provides appropriate standards for what employees should say or do • Boundary-defining • Conveys a sense of identity for organization members • Facilitates commitment to something larger than one’s individual self-interest • Enhances social system stability • Serves as a “sense-making” and control mechanism – Guides and shapes the attitudes and behaviour of employees Culture as a Liability • Culture can have dysfunctional aspects in some instances – Culture as a Barrier to Change • When organization is undergoing change, culture may impede change – Culture as a Barrier to Diversity • Strong cultures put considerable pressure on employees to conform – Culture as a Barrier to Mergers and Acquisitions • Merging the cultures of two organizations can be difficult, if not impossible Conditions for Culture Change • A dramatic crisis • Turnover in leadership • Young and small organizations • Weak culture How Employees Can Change Unethical Behavior • Secretly or publicly reporting unethical actions to a higher level within the organization. • Secretly or publicly reporting unethical actions outside the organization. • Secretly or publicly threatening an offender or responsible manager with reporting unethical actions. • Quietly or publicly refusing to implement an unethical order or policy. Actions Organizations Can Take to Develop an Ethical Culture • Be realistic in setting values and goals regarding employee relationships. • Encourage input from organization members regarding appropriate values and practices for implementing the culture. • Do not automatically opt for a “strong” culture. • Provide training on adopting and implementing the organization’s values. Exhibit 10-6 Suggestions for Changing Culture • Have top-management people become positive role models, setting the tone through their behaviour. • Create new stories, symbols, and rituals to replace those currently in vogue. • Select, promote, and support employees who espouse the new values that are sought. • Redesign socialization processes to align with the new values. Exhibit 10-6 Suggestions for Changing Culture (cont’d) • Change the reward system to encourage acceptance of a new set of values. • Replace unwritten norms with formal rules and regulations that are tightly enforced. • Shake up current subcultures through transfers, job rotation, and/or terminations. • Work to get peer group consensus through utilization of employee participation and creation of a climate with a high level of trust. Exhibit 10-7 Lewin’s Three-Step Change Model Implementing Change • Unfreezing: getting ready for change – Minimizing resistance • Moving: making the change – Changing people (individuals and groups); Tasks; Structure; Technology • Refreezing: stabilizing the change – Reinforcing outcomes, evaluating results, making constructive modifications Exhibit 10-8 Unfreezing the Status Quo Unfreezing • Arouse dissatisfaction with the current state – Tell them about deficiencies in organization • Activate and strengthen top management support – Need to break down power centres • Use participation in decision making – Get people involved • Build in rewards – Tie rewards to change/use recognition, status symbols, praise to get people to go along Moving • Establish goals – E.G. Make business profitable by end of next year • Institute smaller, acceptable changes that reinforce and support change – E.G. Procedures and rules, job descriptions, reporting relationships • Develop management structures for change – E.G. Plans, strategies, mechanisms that ensure change occurs • Maintain open, two-way communication Refreezing • Build success experiences – Set targets for change, and have everyone work toward targets • Reward desired behaviour – GOOD - reward behaviour that reinforces changes – BAD - reward old system (e.g., people relying on old systems while computerization is going on) • Develop structures to institutionalize the change – Organizational retreats, appropriate computer technology, performance appraisals that examine change efforts • Make change work Exhibit 10-9 Sources of Individual Resistance to Change Cynicism About Change • Feeling uninformed about what was happening • Lack of communication and respect from one’s supervisor • Lack of communication and respect from one’s union representative • Lack of opportunity for meaningful participation in decision-making Exhibit 10-11 Sources of Organizational Resistance to Change Overcoming Resistance to Change • Education and Communication – This tactic assumes that the source of resistance lies in misinformation or poor communication. • Participation – Prior to making a change, those opposed can be brought into the decision process. • Facilitation and Support – The provision of various efforts to facilitate adjustment. Overcoming Resistance to Change • Negotiation – Exchange something of value for a lessening of resistance. • Manipulation and Cooperation – Twisting and distorting facts to make them appear more attractive. • Coercion – The application of direct threats or force upon resisters. Summary and Implications • Employees form an overall subjective perception of the organization based on such factors as degree of risk tolerance, team emphasis, and support of people. – This overall perception becomes, in effect, the organization’s culture or personality. – These favourable or unfavourable perceptions then affect employee performance and satisfaction, with the impact being greater for stronger cultures. • Just as people’s personalities tend to be stable over time, so too do strong cultures. – This makes strong cultures difficult for managers to change. Summary and Implications • One of the more important managerial implications of organizational culture relates to selection decisions. – Hiring individuals whose values don't align with those of the organization is not good. • Change must be managed, it is not an easy process • Individuals and organizations resist change – To be successful at change, it is necessary to break down the resistance to change OB at Work For Review 1. Can an employee survive in an organization if he or she rejects its core values? Explain. 2. How can an outsider assess an organization’s culture? 3. What defines an organization’s subcultures? 4. How can culture be a liability to an organization? 5. What benefits can socialization provide for the organization? For the new employee? For Review 6. Describe four cultural types and the characteristics of employees who fit best with each. 7. How does Lewin’s three-step model of change deal with resistance to change? 8. What is the difference between driving forces and restraining forces? 9. What are the factors that lead individuals to resist change? 10. What are the factors that lead organizations to resist change? For Critical Thinking 1. Contrast individual personality and organizational culture. How are they similar? How are they different? • Is socialization brainwashing? Explain. • Can you identify a set of characteristics that describes your college’s or university’s culture? Compare them with several of your peers. How closely do they agree? • “Resistance to change is an irrational response.” Do you agree or disagree? Explain. Breakout Group Exercises • Form small groups to discuss the following: 1. Choose two courses that you are taking this term, ideally in different faculties, and describe the culture of the classroom in each. What are the similarities and differences? What values about learning might you infer from your observations of culture? 2. Identify artifacts of culture in your current or previous workplace. From these artifacts, would you conclude that the organization had a strong or weak culture? 3. Reflect on either the culture of one of your classes, or the culture of the organization where you work, and identify aspects of that culture that could be changed. How might some of these changes be made?

Organisational Culture

ORGANISATIONAL CULTURE The culture of an organisation is an amalgamation of the values and beliefs of the people in an organisation. It can be felt in the implicit rules and expectations of behaviour in an organisation where, even though the rules are not formally written down employees know what is expected of them. It is usually set by management whose decisions on policy usually set up the culture of the organisation. The organisational culture usually has values and beliefs that support the organisational goals. Values and Beliefs which support Organisational Goals. The culture of the organisation, if it is positive and helpful can help to motivate staff or at least prevent them from becoming dissatisfied. At IBM. the attitude of management to their employees is an attraction to prospective staff and would probably help maintain the staff that they have. If the climate does not satisfy the needs of staff, then it will probably become a demotivator, - that is that it would cause dissatisfaction and so people would become less inclined to want to work towards the organisational goals. Things in an organisation which contribute to the culture or climate

the organisational structure of reporting and relationships company policy personnel practices work flow and work loads job design management and supervisory styles. Things which can affect the organisational culture on an individual or personal level. levels of trust risk taking stress fears and anxieties social interaction factions and politics Organisational Goals All organisations have goals. These goals might be to make the most profit they can, or to gain the highest market share in their area of business or in the case of many community organisations, to provide an effective service to the community even if they do not make any money at all. Managers are employed to ensure that the people who work in an organisation are working together to achieve the organisations goals. What is this thing called organisational culture? Conversations often refer to different organisations having different cultures. For the average person - "culture" may mean that they perceive the organisation they are involved with to be: pushy, harsh and authoritarian very political with traps and pitfalls for people to fall into if they are not nimble and able to wheeler-deal and hold their own in a brawl rule and ritual bound cold and separated brisk, dynamic, opportunistic exploitative, all take and no give caring and genuinely interested in people as people People classify what they see as the characteristics of organisations. We construe and organisation culture. It is socially defined and experienced. The experience of the things we feel are displayed by the "culture and its practices" affect how we behave and respond to the organisations we work in. Culture Control and Engineering Managers seek to "change" the culture of the organisation. What they therefore try to do is shape the way that people behave, feel, contribute, interact, and perform as employees of the organisation. This is usually called leadership! They initiate the debates, set the imperatives and priorities. If the managers want to pursue quality improvement then meetings will be held, training will be done, banners will be waved - new imperatives are brought in to the business to be integrated by way of activities, expectations, values and sanctions into the culture of the business. This is business - the business must succeed in co-ordinated, highly charged ways. New policies, methods and roles are introduced to shape behaviours, encourage, promote and require - to push certain expectations of performance in the business and thus to control. Spoken of in other ways, culture in organisational terms is broadly the social/behavioural manifestation and experiencing of a whole range of issues such as: the way work is organised and experienced how authority exercised and distributed how people are and feel rewarded, organised and controlled the values and work orientation of staff the degree of formalisation, standardisation and control through systems there is/should be the value placed on planning, analysis, logic, fairness etc how much initiative, risk-taking, scope for individuality and expression is given rules and expectations about such things as informality in interpersonal relations, dress, personal eccentricity etc differential status emphasis given to rules, procedures, specifications of performance and results, team or individual working Organisational Culture and Working Life We are born into a culture; we take up employment in a culture. We might therefore argue that the culture of an organisation affects the type of people employed, their career aspirations, their educational backgrounds, and their status in society. The culture of the organisation may embrace them. It may reject them. Visibility Organisational culture may be visible In the type of buildings, offices, shops of the organisation. In the image projected in publicity and public relations in general. Think for example of the differences between a local authority, a computer manufacturer, and a merchant bank. An organisation's culture may be imperceptible, taken for granted, assumed, a status quo that we live and participate in but do not question. Elements of the culture may be questioned where individual or group expectations do not correspond to the behaviour associated with the prevailing values of those who uphold "the culture". An organisation may display elements of several "cultures" which may contradict each other, which may compete. We can even consider the characteristics of an anti-organisational or countervailing culture. Classifying/Modelling Organisation Culture To understand organisation cultures we can begin by describing types of organisation such as democratic, laissez-faire, participative etc. Such descriptions in a sense become representative "models" of organisations (abstractions). The model defines our assessment of elements, relationships, determinants and likely effects. Our model may enable us to predict events so that we act to steer our own behaviour and the behaviour of others. Defining "models or frameworks" helps us to understand what the phenomena is, discuss it with others and identify what we might do to translate the model or parts of it into reality. The Organizational Climate Assessment The Organizational Climate Assessment is a powerful instrument, especially when provided organization-wide with specific departmental demographic separation and analysis. Each category has been designed to assess one of the key categories, which affect employee performance. This assessment should be administered anonymously company wide, broken out by departments of 6 or more people to protect the identities of respondents. Every precaution should be taken to insure confidentiality in order that respondents will feel comfortable sharing their true opinions and perspectives. The objective of performing an employee climate assessment is to identify the key areas which are hindering production, reducing effectiveness and which might generate unexpected costs in the near future. The idea and approach is for the organization not to simply perform an academic exercise, simply because they 'do it at this time every year', but to critically examine themselves to see where the company and its employees might be finely tuned to generate higher levels of performance. Once identified, opportunities to strengthen existing approaches, which are working well, as well as select appropriate interventions for addressing the weakest areas, should be aggressively pursued for the maximum benefit of everyone. This assessment is designed with the following assumptions in mind: Fundamental care of the employee as an asset Organizations are successful because of the quality of work employees perform. When employees are cared for, and the right environment is created where there are no barriers to performance, their true value to the organization can be fully realized. Respect for the dignity of the employee and the sensitivities of human beings Humans have fundamental needs for safety and security, affiliation and acceptance, involvement as well as self-actualization. The extent to which these and other human needs are fulfilled lead to higher levels of commitment, initiative and performance. Organizations, which include an emphasis on fulfilling the needs of their employees to some extent, will enjoy a more productive and stable workforce. Full understanding of the realities of business This assessment is written with full realization of the realities of business, and not an unrealistic utopian view of an idealized work environment. The factors emphasized and measured in this assessment are the important levers to optimizing employee workplace performance, not just creating an environment where everyone feels better. Embracing optimization and improvement An irrefutable trend in business today, continuous improvement and increasing levels of efficiency are a way of life, and these factors are given appropriate emphasis in this assessment because they represent an ever present dynamic with which every employee must deal. Keys to motivation and commitment Rather than only identifying potential problem areas to be avoided, this assessment focuses on areas where human behavior can be leveraged more positively to create employees with higher levels of motivation and commitment Organisational Values The values of an organisation are used to indicate the type of conduct: Required by employees when carrying out the operations of the organisation That customers can expect from the organisation Organisational values often cover the following areas: Compliance with legislation Employment of staff Customer service Receiving gifts from suppliers and customers Giving gifts to customers Discrimination in the workplace Employee integrity Employee privacy Quality standards of products and services Example: Some of the values that might be set for a Customer Contact Centre include: Employees will act with honesty and integrity when dealing with customers, suppliers, government agencies and fellow employees. At all times employees will endeavour to act in such a way that others are treated with respect and dignity. Employees will never directly or indirectly engage in theft, fraud or embezzlement. No employee will participate in fraudulent or deceptive activities towards the organisation, customers, suppliers or any other party with whom the organisation has business dealings. Company policy prohibits unlawful discrimination against employees or customers based on their race, gender, religious or ethnic background. The organisation will observe all laws and regulations governing business activity. When organisations set values, they do so based on the ethics that they hold to be important. A Why consider a climate survey? The reasons in favour of climate surveys. The CEO wants a measure of climate upon taking over the reigns of the organisation. The CEO wants to find out what climate issues are interfering with organisational progress. The CEO wants to improve performance - is aware that climate influences or is influenced by: job performance, job satisfaction, involvement, commitment, org structure and rules, leadership style, citizenship behaviour, innovation, competence, rewards, intention to quit, stress etc. The CEO acts on the valuing human capital, and recognises climate components related to development, learning, innovation etc Climate is easier to operationalise than culture. Climate precedes culture. Without appropriate climate, desired culture will not happen. Climate is wonderful metaphor because everyone understands it. Climate can assist changes at organisational or individual level Climate is an honest concept that has not been manufactured to cause something to happen, as have nearly all other organisational change options. Climate allows description of something that already exists. It also allows description of what is wanted, and is readily operationalised. Org climate can empower or disempower. Climate facilitates organisational alignment. Reasons that prompt HR to consider a climate survey · HR have sensed a need to have hard climate data to report to the executive · HR wish to monitor the impact of other organisational change processes · HR wish to measure the impact of environmental changes Reasons that may delay a decision to undertake a climate survey · Things are a bit bad just now · Didn't help last time · May encourage unreasonable expectations by employees Making climate measurements useful · There are processes to improve data quality and quantity · Involvement of and ownership by employees · Secure psychological safety Moving from climate survey tostrategic climate. There is a further process that takes climate measurement, and uses it as part of Deltapoint's Strategic Climate Planning and Management system. Use strategic direction of organisation Develop scenarios and flags Design ideal org. climate for those scenarios Find difference between current climate and target climate Set project to align climate(s) Do it Measure it Learn from it Adjust strategic direction and loop again etc. Even mere surveys can work better. Organisational surveys such as climate, family friendly awareness, sexual discrimination, drug issues, job satisfaction, intention to quit and so on, are generally not well received when done in-house. Questionnaires are easily biased to get the answers expected. Staff fear abuse of data collected in-house. The participant expects some improvement out of them, but that rarely happen. A flawed questionnaire + insincere respondents = bad data. Surveys conducted by appropriately skilled external consultant typically pull higher participation rates and better sincerity levels. Issues of confidentiality, trust, and credibility of researchers are important to those being surveyed, and the external consultant can better guarantee anonymity of results. In a specific example, one climate survey conducted in-house suffered 6% missing data, and the missing data was scattered so that 92% of questions were not answered by everyone. There were widespread pattern responses that indicated insincere participation. Quantity and quality of data were poor. The follow-up survey, also measuring climate, but conducted by Deltapoint, returned .06% missing data, no unusable questions, and no detectable insincerity. In addition to reports being more meaningful, the inherent 'empowerment' of individuals during the process encouraged ownership of the solutions that they themselves created as part of the final report. Climate can be a powerful organisational development tool when used